Under the rule of Emperor Akbar, the Mughal Empire underwent significant transformations in its structure, governance, and policies. Akbar’s reign, which spanned from 1556 to 1605, marked a remarkable period in the history of the Indian subcontinent. 

Akbar implemented a highly centralized administrative structure that streamlined the governance of the vast empire. The administrative hierarchy was organized into several key components:

• Provincial Administration: The Empire was divided into provinces called “subahs,” each governed by a “subahdar” or provincial governor. This system allowed for effective control over distant regions.
• Mansabdari System: Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system, which ranked officials based on their military and administrative capabilities. Every noble, or “mansabdar,” held a “mansab” or rank, and this system facilitated efficient placement and promotion within the bureaucracy.
• Revenue Administration: Raja Todar Mal, one of Akbar’s trusted advisors, implemented revenue reforms known as the “Zabt” system. This system aimed to rationalize revenue collection and assessment, benefiting both the state and local peasantry.
• Military: Akbar maintained a formidable military force, including infantry, cavalry, and artillery divisions. He reorganized the army, incorporating firearms and artillery, making it a formidable fighting force.
• Judicial System: The judicial system under Akbar was based on Islamic law (Sharia), and qazis (judges) presided over courts. Akbar was known for his efforts to ensure justice and fairness in legal proceedings.

Akbar pursued a policy of religious tolerance and accommodation, recognizing the diverse religious landscape of his empire. His approach to religion included several key initiatives:

• Sulh-i-Kul: Akbar’s famous doctrine of “Sulh-i-Kul” or “peace with all” promoted religious harmony and tolerance. He sought to create an inclusive society where people of different faiths could coexist peacefully.
• Religious Debates: Akbar organized discussions and debates among scholars of various religious traditions, including Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, and Sikhism. These dialogues aimed to foster mutual understanding and respect.
• Din-i Ilahi: Akbar initiated the “Din-i Ilahi” or “Religion of God,” which was a syncretic religion that sought to integrate elements of different faiths. While it did not gain widespread acceptance, it reflected Akbar’s interest in religious diversity.

Akbar’s economic policies aimed to promote economic growth and stability. Some notable economic initiatives during his reign included:

• Land Revenue Reforms: Raja Todar Mal’s revenue reforms, including the “Zabt” system and the standardization of land measurements, enhanced revenue collection and agricultural productivity.
• Trade and Commerce: Akbar encouraged trade and commerce, both domestically and with foreign nations. He supported the development of key trade routes and promoted a thriving market economy.
• Monetary Reforms: Akbar introduced a new currency system, with the silver “Rupiya” as the standard coin. This system facilitated trade and financial transactions.

Akbar was a great patron of art, culture, and scholarship. His court attracted renowned poets, scholars, and artists. Key cultural developments during his reign included:

• Mughal Miniature Painting: The Mughal court became a centre for miniature painting, with artists creating exquisite works that depicted historical events, court life, and religious themes.
• Literary Achievements: Akbar’s reign saw the composition of significant literary works, including the “Akbarnama” (chronicle of Akbar’s reign) and the “Ain-i-Akbari” (a detailed account of Akbar’s administration).
• Architectural Marvels: Akbar commissioned the construction of architectural masterpieces, such as the Fatehpur Sikri complex and several forts and palaces that blended Persian and Indian architectural styles.

Akbar implemented social policies aimed at improving the welfare of his subjects. Some of these policies included:

• Census and Land Surveys: Akbar ordered extensive census and land surveys to assess the population and land resources accurately. This information was crucial for effective governance.
• Encouragement of Artisans: Akbar supported skilled artisans and craftsmen, particularly those involved in the production of textiles, jewellery, and other handicrafts.
• Welfare Measures: Akbar introduced various welfare measures, including hospitals and centres for the care of the destitute and disabled.

1. Akbar’s Concept of Suzerainty

Akbar’s concept of suzerainty, often referred to as the “Mansabdari System,” was a pivotal administrative and military innovation during his reign as the Mughal emperor (1556-1605). This system played a crucial role in maintaining central control over the vast Mughal Empire, enhancing military capabilities, and establishing a hierarchical bureaucracy. 

1.1. Mansabdari System

The Mansabdari System was a unique hierarchical structure through which Akbar organized his nobility, military commanders, and administrative officials. The term “mansab” means rank or position, and individuals were given ranks based on their military capabilities, loyalty, and administrative competence.

1. 2. Rank and Responsibility

• Mansabs for Nobles: Akbar conferred mansabs upon the nobility, both Muslim and non-Muslim. Nobles were assigned ranks known as “mansabs,” which determined their status, responsibilities, and the number of troops they were required to maintain for imperial service. These ranks ranged from 10 to 7,000, with each rank corresponding to a specific number of cavalrymen.
• Mansabs for Military Commanders: Military commanders were also assigned ranks, indicating their command authority and the size of the military contingent they were responsible for. This system allowed Akbar to have a clear chain of command in the military.

1.3. Flexibility and Reward

• Promotion and Demotion: The Mansabdari System allowed for upward mobility. Individuals who demonstrated exceptional loyalty, military prowess, or administrative skills could be promoted to higher ranks. Conversely, those who underperformed or lost favour could be demoted.
• Reward and Compensation: Mansabdars received salaries and were granted revenue assignments based on their ranks. This provided an incentive for loyalty and effective service. The revenue assignments, known as “jagirs,” were essential sources of income for nobles and commanders.

1.4. Control and Loyalty

• Centralized Control: Akbar retained centralized control over the military by appointing and promoting nobles and commanders based on their loyalty and service. This prevented the rise of regional power centres that could challenge the authority of the Mughal Empire.
• Religious and Regional Diversity: Akbar’s Mansabdari System included individuals from diverse religious and regional backgrounds. This diversity not only ensured a broader base of support but also contributed to the cultural richness of the empire.

• Standing Army: The Mansabdari System created a standing army, composed of nobles and commanders with assigned ranks and troops. This standing army was readily available for imperial service, making the Mughal military more organized and efficient.
• Control over Provinces: Akbar’s control over provinces was facilitated by appointing mansabdars as governors. These provincial governors were responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting revenue, and overseeing administrative matters.

1.6. Administrative Efficiency

• Hierarchical Bureaucracy: The Mansabdari System extended beyond the military to include administrative officials. This hierarchical bureaucracy ensured efficient governance, as officials were assigned ranks based on their competence and responsibilities.
• Census and Revenue Collection: Akbar’s reforms, including the standardization of land measurements and revenue assessment, were implemented through the Mansabdari System. This facilitated accurate revenue collection and assessment.

1.7. Legacy and Significance

Akbar’s concept of suzerainty through the Mansabdari System had a profound and lasting impact on the Mughal Empire and Indian history:

• Centralization: It reinforced central control over the empire, preventing the emergence of regional power centres and ensuring the unity of the Mughal Empire.
• Military Efficiency: The system created a disciplined and efficient military, enabling the Mughals to maintain internal stability and expand their territorial reach.
• Administrative Order: It established an organized administrative structure that contributed to effective governance, revenue collection, and the standardization of administrative practices.
• Diversity and Inclusivity: The system embraced diversity by including individuals of different backgrounds, fostering religious and regional inclusivity.
• Legacy of Governance: Akbar’s approach to governance and suzerainty set a precedent for subsequent Mughal rulers and influenced later Indian administrations.

2. Structure of Government, Central and Provincial -the Vikalat, the Central Ministries, Provincial 

• The structure of government during the reign of Akbar was a highly centralized one, with all power emanating from the emperor.
• Akbar was the supreme authority in the state and all other rulers were his subordinates.
• Akbar’s government was divided into two main branches: the central government and the provincial government.
• The central government was headed by Akbar himself and was responsible for matters of national importance, such as defence, foreign affairs, and finance.
• The provincial governments were headed by subedars, who were appointed by Akbar. The subedars were responsible for the administration of their respective provinces.
• The central government was divided into several departments, each of which was headed by a minister.
• The most important departments were the revenue department, the military department, and the foreign affairs department.
• The provincial governments were also divided into several departments, but these were not as well-developed as the central government departments.
• The most important provincial departments were the Revenue Department and the police department.
• Akbar’s government was also characterized by several important reforms.
• One of the most important reforms was the introduction of a new land revenue system.
• This system was based on the measurement of land and the quality of soil.
• It was a more efficient and equitable system than the previous system.
• Another important reform was the introduction of a new currency system.
• Akbar also standardized weights and measures. This made it easier for trade and commerce to flourish.
• Akbar was also a great patron of the arts and sciences. He established a court of scholars and artists, and he commissioned the construction of many magnificent buildings, including the Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Fatehpur Sikri complex.

2.1. Vikalat (Vice-Regal Authority)

• Akbar established the concept of Vikalat, which was akin to the vice-regal authority.
• It allowed him to delegate authority to trust nobles when he was absent from the capital or engaged in military campaigns.
• Vikalat holders had the power to make decisions on behalf of the emperor but were ultimately accountable to him.

2.2. Central Ministries

The central administration was organized into various ministries or departments, each responsible for specific functions. These ministries included:

• Diwan-i-Kohi (Agriculture Ministry): – This ministry dealt with agricultural matters, land revenue, and taxation related to agricultural produce.
• Diwan-i-Mustakhraj (Revenue Ministry): – Responsible for the collection of revenue from various sources, including land revenue, customs duties, and trade taxes.
• Diwan-i-Ariz (Military Ministry): – Oversaw military affairs, including the recruitment, training, and payment of soldiers.
• Diwan-i-Insha (Correspondence Ministry): – Managed royal correspondence and diplomatic communications. It was responsible for maintaining records and archives.
• Diwan-i-Wizarat (Finance Ministry): – Dealt with financial matters, including the treasury, currency, and fiscal policies.
• Diwan-i-Qaza (Justice Ministry): – Administered justice and maintained law and order. It included judges and officials responsible for resolving legal disputes.

These ministries played a crucial role in the day-to-day administration of the Mughal Empire.

2.3. Provincial Administration

• The Mughal Empire was divided into provinces, each governed by a provincial governor known as a Subahdar or Sipahsalar.
• Some provinces were further divided into smaller administrative units called Sarkars.
• The Subahdars were responsible for maintaining law and order, revenue collection, and military affairs within their provinces.
• They were also tasked with ensuring that the policies and orders of the central government, as directed by the emperor, were implemented effectively.

2.4. Mansabdari System

• Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system, a system of ranking and appointing officials and military commanders based on their “mansabs” or ranks.
• Mansabdars were assigned a rank (mansab) and were responsible for maintaining a contingent of soldiers commensurate with their rank.
• This system helped in both military and civil administration, as officials held dual responsibilities.

2.5. Iqta System

• The Iqta system was prevalent during Akbar’s reign. It involved the grant of revenue assignments (Iqtas) to nobles in exchange for their services.
• Iqtadars were responsible for collecting revenue from their assigned territories and maintaining law and order.
• Akbar introduced reforms to make the system more efficient and accountable.

2.6. Local Administration

• At the local level, the Mughal administration was carried out by local officials, including “Qazis” (judges), “Kotwals” (city police chiefs), and “Patels” (village headmen).
• These officials ensured the rule of law, resolved disputes, and maintained order at the grassroots level.
• The “Zamindars” (landowners) played a significant role in local governance and revenue collection.

 3. Government, District and Local Government

• The government of the Mughal Empire during the reign of Akbar was a highly centralized one, with all power emanating from the emperor.
• The empire was divided into provinces, each of which was administered by a governor (subedar).
• The subedar was responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and administering justice.
• The provinces were further subdivided into districts, each of which was administered by a district officer (faujdar).
• The faujdar was responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and administering justice in the district.

3.1. District Administration

• The Mughal Empire was divided into provinces, each known as a “Subah.”
• These provinces were further subdivided into districts, known as “Sarkars” or “Shiqs.”
• Each district was headed by a local administrator or “Faujdar.”
• The Faujdar was responsible for maintaining law and order, overseeing the administration of justice, and collecting revenue within the district.
• They also had a military role and were responsible for the defence of their districts.
• The district administration played a crucial role in ensuring that the central government’s policies were implemented at the local level.
• They were responsible for maintaining records, collecting taxes, and resolving disputes.

3.2. Local Government

At the local level, the Mughal administration involved various officials responsible for maintaining order and collecting revenue. Some key officials and aspects of local government during Akbar’s reign include:

1. Qazis (Judges): Qazis were responsible for the administration of justice at the local level. They presided over legal proceedings, settled disputes, and ensured the rule of law.
2. Kotwals (City Police Chiefs): Kotwals were in charge of maintaining law and order in urban areas. They were responsible for the security of the city, including the prevention of crimes and disturbances.
3. Patels (Village Headmen): Patels were local leaders responsible for the administration of villages. They played a vital role in collecting revenue, maintaining village records, and resolving local issues.
4. Zamindars (Landowners): Zamindars were influential landowners who played a significant role in local governance. They collected land revenue on behalf of the state and often held sway over the local population.

3.3. Revenue Collection

• Akbar introduced several significant reforms in revenue collection, including the “Zabt” system.
• Under this system, land revenue was fixed based on the average production of the land.
• This helped in reducing the burden on peasants and provided stability to revenue collection.
• Revenue officials known as “Amins” were responsible for measuring land, assessing its productivity, and collecting land revenue.
• The revenue collected was a significant source of income for the Mughal government.
• Akbar also introduced the “Dahsala” system, where one-tenth of the produce was collected as revenue. This system aimed at ensuring equitable distribution of the tax burden.

4. The Working of Government – the Ruler, Land-Revenue System, the Dahsala System, the Mansabdari System and the Army 

• The Mughal government was a highly centralized one, with all power emanating from the emperor.
• The emperor was assisted by a council of ministers, but they were ultimately responsible to him.
• The government was divided into several departments, each of which was headed by a minister.
• The most important departments were the revenue department, the military department, and the foreign affairs department.
• The government was responsible for several important functions, including Maintaining law and order, Collecting taxes, Administering justice, Providing relief to the poor and needy and Defending the empire from external aggression. 

4.1. The Role of the Ruler

• Akbar was the central figure in the Mughal government. As the emperor, he held absolute power and was considered the ultimate authority in all matters.
• Akbar believed in the concept of “sulh-i kul” or universal tolerance, which encouraged religious harmony and acceptance of diversity within the empire.
• This inclusive policy is aimed at creating social cohesion and reducing religious tensions.

4.2. Land-Revenue System

• The land-revenue system during Akbar’s reign underwent significant reforms.
• The most notable reform was the introduction of the “Zabt” system. Under this system, land revenue was assessed and fixed based on the average yield of the land over ten years.
• Revenue officials called “Amins” were responsible for measuring land, assessing its productivity, and collecting land revenue from the peasants.
• The Zabt system aimed at providing stability in revenue collection and reducing the burden on the peasants, as they were no longer subjected to unpredictable tax increases.

4.3. The Dahsala System

• The Dahsala system, introduced by Akbar, was a method of revenue collection. Under this system, the government collected one-third of the agricultural produce as revenue.
• The Dahsala system was considered more flexible and less burdensome for peasants compared to the earlier systems.
• It allowed peasants to retain two-thirds of their produce for their sustenance and investment.
• This system aimed at providing a fair and equitable method of revenue collection while ensuring that the government received its due share.
• Under the Dahsala system, the land was divided into three categories:
  • Polaj: Land that was cultivated every year.
  • Parauti: Land that was cultivated every two or three years.
  • Banjar: Land that was not cultivated for more than three years.

4.4. The Mansabdari System

• The Mansabdari system was a unique feature of Akbar’s administration.
• It was a system of ranking and grading officials, including military officers, based on their “mansabs” or ranks.
• Every official, including military officers, was assigned a rank known as a “mansab.”
• The rank determined the official’s salary, military responsibilities, and administrative duties.
• This system helped Akbar centralize authority and maintain a strong grip on the administration.
• It also allowed him to reward loyal officials with higher ranks and positions.

4.5. The Mughal Army

• Akbar maintained a well-organized and formidable army. The Mughal army was known for its discipline, training, and effectiveness.
• The army was divided into various branches, including infantry, cavalry, artillery, and elephants.
• Akbar also incorporated firearms and cannons into the military, which added to its firepower.
• The Mansabdari system played a crucial role in managing the Mughal army.
• Each military officer’s rank and responsibilities were clearly defined, contributing to the army’s efficiency.
• Akbar’s military campaigns and conquests expanded the empire’s territory, and the army played a central role in these endeavours.