Indian National Movement: Period I (1905-1918)
The Partition of Bengal in 1905 was a significant event in India’s struggle for independence and a turning point in the history of the Indian National Movement. It had far-reaching consequences and triggered a mass movement that marked the beginning of a more assertive phase of India’s quest for self-rule. Here’s an overview of the Partition of Bengal:
Background
- Bengal, a province of British India, was the largest and most populous province at the time.
- The partition was proposed by Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India, and was officially announced on July 19, 1905.
- The stated reason for the partition was administrative efficiency, but it was widely believed that the British government aimed to “divide and rule” by creating religious and ethnic divisions.
Key Features
- The province of Bengal was divided into two new entities: East Bengal and Assam (with a majority of Bengali-speaking population) and West Bengal (with a majority of Hindi-speaking population).
- The proposed partition was based on religious lines, with East Bengal having a Muslim majority and West Bengal having a Hindu majority. This religious division was intended to create a rift between the Hindu and Muslim communities.
Protests and Opposition
- The partition plan was met with widespread protests, not only from the political leaders but also from various sections of society.
- Prominent leaders like Rabindranath Tagore, Aurobindo Ghosh, and Surendranath Banerjee opposed the partition, seeing it as a deliberate attempt to weaken the nationalist movement.
- The Swadeshi Movement was launched, advocating the use of Indian-made goods and boycott of British products.
- Mass demonstrations, strikes, and civil disobedience were organized to express dissent.
Significance
- The Partition of Bengal was a critical event that galvanized the Indian masses and marked the beginning of mass-based political movements.
- It showcased the ability of Indians to come together and protest against British policies collectively.
- The Swadeshi Movement led to the promotion of Indian-made products and the establishment of Swadeshi industries.
Reversal of Partition (1911)
- Due to the strong opposition and ongoing protests, the British government reversed the partition in 1911.
- Bengal was reunified as a single province, with the capital in Calcutta (now Kolkata).
The Partition of Bengal remains a symbol of British colonial policies that attempted to create religious divisions and exploit them for their own benefit. It was met with determined opposition from Indians and served as a precursor to more assertive and mass-based movements in the Indian National Movement, ultimately contributing to India’s struggle for independence.
The Swadeshi Movement was a key component of the broader Indian Nationalist Movement, and it emerged during the early 20th century as a response to British colonial policies. The movement was characterized by a call for the boycott of British goods and the promotion of Indian-made products.
Background
- The Swadeshi Movement was closely linked to the Partition of Bengal in 1905, which created widespread anger and discontent among Indians.
- The partition was seen as an attempt to divide the Bengali-speaking population along religious lines and weaken the nationalist movement.
Key Features
- Swadeshi, derived from the Sanskrit word “Svadeshi,” means “of one’s own country.” The movement urged Indians to boycott British goods and promote the use of Indian-made products. This was seen as a way to weaken the economic power of the British in India.
- The movement encouraged the production and use of Indian-made goods, from textiles and clothing to salt and food items. Indian nationalists actively promoted the use of handspun and handwoven khadi (homespun cloth) as a symbol of self-reliance.
- The Swadeshi Movement also emphasized the need for national education. Many leaders like Rabindranath Tagore, Aurobindo Ghosh, and Lala Lajpat Rai started their own schools and educational institutions to promote Indian culture, languages, and traditions.
- The Swadeshi Movement saw mass mobilization of people, including students, professionals, and ordinary citizens. It led to strikes, protests, and demonstrations against British policies.
- The movement also aimed at reviving and promoting Indian culture, arts, and traditions. It was not just an economic or political movement but also a cultural renaissance.
- Prominent leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Rabindranath Tagore, and Aurobindo Ghosh played pivotal roles in promoting Swadeshi.
Impact
- The Swadeshi Movement had a significant economic impact, as the boycott of British goods hit their trade and business interests in India.
- It brought Indian masses together and fostered a sense of unity and nationalism.
- The movement paved the way for the growth of indigenous industries and enterprises, leading to economic self-reliance.
Legacy
- The Swadeshi Movement was a precursor to other major movements in the Indian Nationalist Movement, including the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Civil Disobedience Movement.
- It laid the foundation for a stronger and more organized Indian nationalist movement that eventually led to India’s independence in 1947.
The Swadeshi Movement represented the spirit of self-reliance and a desire for economic and political independence from British colonial rule. It remains an integral part of India’s struggle for freedom and its quest for self-determination.
The All-India Muslim League, often simply referred to as the Muslim League, was a political organization in British India. It was founded on December 30, 1906, in Dhaka, Bengal, during the first decade of the 20th century. The founding of the Muslim League was a response to the political situation in British India during that period. The Indian National Congress (INC), which was a predominantly Hindu political organization, had been active for several years and was pushing for more Indian representation and political rights within the British colonial system.
Key Objectives
- The primary objective of the Muslim League was to protect the political and socio-economic rights of Muslims in India. They were concerned about potential Hindu domination in a future self-governing India.
- The Muslim League aimed to secure adequate representation for Muslims in the legislative councils, where important decisions were made under British rule.
- The Muslim League wanted to ensure that the distinct cultural and religious identity of Muslims was preserved in any future political framework.
Growth and Demands
- Over time, the Muslim League’s demands evolved. They began to advocate for greater autonomy and separate electorates for Muslims.
- This ultimately led to the idea of a separate Muslim state, which was realized with the creation of Pakistan in 1947.
- The Muslim League played a pivotal role in the eventual partition of India in 1947 and the creation of Pakistan.
- Its demands for separate electorates and later a separate Muslim state significantly influenced the political landscape of South Asia.
The All-India Muslim League’s founding in 1906 marked the beginning of organized political efforts by Muslims to protect their rights and interests within British India. Over the years, it evolved into a major political force that significantly contributed to the shape of post-colonial South Asia.
The Surat Session of the Indian National Congress (INC) held in 1907 was a significant event in the history of the Indian independence movement. This session, officially known as the 22nd session, took place in Surat, Gujarat. The Surat Session is notable for the deep divisions and conflicts within the INC, which eventually led to a split in the organization.
Key Highlights of the Surat Session, 1907
1. The INC was divided into two major groups during this session: the Moderates and the Extremists. The Moderates, led by leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Dadabhai Naoroji, advocated for a cautious and gradual approach to attain political concessions from the British government. On the other hand, the Extremists, led by leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal, demanded a more radical approach and were in favour of direct action to achieve self-rule.
2. The ideological clash between the Moderates and Extremists came to the forefront during the Surat Session. The Extremists were pushing for a more assertive and confrontational stance against British rule, while the Moderates believed in negotiations and constitutional methods to attain reforms.
3. The session witnessed a fierce presidential election. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, a prominent Extremist leader, was nominated for the presidency. However, Gopal Krishna Gokhale and his supporters backed Rash Behari Ghosh, a Moderate, as their presidential candidate. This election became a reflection of the broader ideological divide within the INC.
4. The divisions between the two factions were so deep that they led to disruptions and chaos during the session. There were clashes between supporters of the two presidential candidates, and the session had to be adjourned at several points due to the disorder.
5. The Surat Session was ultimately adjourned without achieving any significant decisions or resolutions. As a result of the deep divisions, the INC split into two factions: the Moderates, who remained within the INC, and the Extremists, who formed a separate organization called the All India Home Rule League.
Significance
- The Surat Session of 1907 marked a turning point in the history of the INC. The split between the Moderates and Extremists highlighted the ideological differences within the organization and set the stage for subsequent developments in the Indian independence movement.
- While the INC continued its political activities, the Extremists, led by leaders like Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal, pursued more radical methods and played a vital role in raising nationalist sentiments.
- One of the most contentious aspects of the Morley-Minto Act was the introduction of separate electorates based on religion. Under this provision, Muslim electorates were created, and Muslims were allowed to vote for their own representatives, distinct from those elected by non-Muslims. This was done to protect the political interests of religious minorities.
- The Act expanded the size of the central and provincial legislative councils. In the central council, the number of members was increased from 16 to 60, and in the provincial councils, the number of members was increased to varying extents.
- While the Act did introduce elected members in both central and provincial legislative councils, the majority of the members continued to be appointed by the government. The electorate was limited, with certain restrictions on who could vote and who could stand for elections.
- The Act provided the legislative councils with a limited capacity to discuss the budget, ask questions, and pass resolutions. However, real legislative powers remained with the government.
- Apart from the introduction of separate electorates for Muslims, seats were also reserved for other minority communities, like Sikhs and Europeans, in the provincial legislative councils.
- The Act excluded certain areas and provinces, including Burma, Assam, the Central Provinces, and North-West Frontier Province, from its provisions.
- The Morley-Minto Act reiterated British sovereignty and paramountcy over India. It did not alter the basic structure of British colonial rule.
Impact and Significance
The Morley-Minto Act of 1909 is significant for several reasons:
- It marked a step toward recognizing communal representation in the legislative councils, which became a crucial feature of later constitutional reforms.
- The introduction of separate electorates for religious communities laid the foundation for religious-based politics in India, with far-reaching consequences in the years to come.
- While the Act expanded the size of legislative councils and allowed for limited discussion on the budget and certain issues, it fell short of providing real self-governance to Indians. The majority of seats remained under the control of the government.
- The Act also reflected the British strategy of “divide and rule,” as it promoted communal divisions based on religion.
The Morley-Minto Act of 1909 was a significant development in India’s constitutional history, introducing the concept of communal representation and laying the groundwork for future constitutional reforms and political movements. It was a response to growing demands for political reforms and representation from different communities in India, particularly the Muslims.
The Ghadar Party, founded in 1913, was a revolutionary organization primarily formed by Indian expatriates in the United States and Canada. The party aimed to liberate India from British colonial rule and played a significant role in the Indian independence movement.
Formation and Leadership
- The Ghadar Party was founded by Punjabi immigrants, primarily Sikh and Punjabi farmers who had settled in North America, particularly the United States and Canada.
- The party was established under the leadership of key figures, including Sohan Singh Bhakna, Lala Hardayal, and Kartar Singh Sarabha.
- The primary objective of the Ghadar Party was to overthrow British colonial rule in India and establish an independent and democratic Indian government.
- The party aimed to achieve this through armed revolution and sought to mobilize Indians in India and abroad for this purpose.
- The Ghadar Party published a newspaper called “The Ghadar,” which served as a platform for spreading revolutionary ideas, anti-British propaganda, and news about events in India.
- The newspaper was printed in various languages, including Punjabi, Urdu, Hindi, and Gurumukhi, and was widely distributed to Indian communities in North America and India.
Recruitment and Support
- The Ghadar Party actively sought to recruit Indian soldiers who were serving in the British Indian Army. They aimed to incite mutinies and encourage soldiers to revolt against British authorities.
- The party also tried to gather support from the Indian diaspora living abroad by raising funds and organizing efforts to purchase arms and ammunition.
- In February 1915, with support from the Ghadar Party, a mutiny known as the Ghadar Mutiny was initiated among Indian soldiers in the British Indian Army, primarily in Singapore and other locations.
- However, the mutiny was quickly suppressed by British authorities, and many of its leaders and participants were arrested.
Impact and Legacy
- The Ghadar Party, although short-lived and faced with limited success in its efforts, played a crucial role in inspiring the Indian independence movement.
- It contributed to the revolutionary spirit in India and the emergence of leaders like Bhagat Singh, who were deeply influenced by the ideas of the Ghadar Party.
- The party’s legacy lives on in the collective memory of the struggle for Indian independence.
The Ghadar Party, with its commitment to armed struggle and its dedication to the cause of Indian independence, remains an important chapter in the history of the Indian freedom movement. While it did not achieve its immediate objectives, it sowed the seeds of resistance and left a lasting impact on the fight against British colonial rule in India.
The Komagata Maru incident of 1914 was a significant event in the context of Canada’s immigration history and its relationship with the Indian community. The incident involved a Japanese steamship named Komagata Maru, which carried 376 passengers, primarily Sikh immigrants from British India (present-day India and Pakistan), who were seeking a better life in Canada.
Background
- In the early 20th century, many Indians sought immigration to Canada in search of economic opportunities and a better life.
- However, Canada had stringent immigration policies that discriminated against non-European immigrants, particularly those from Asia.
- Canada implemented the Continuous Passage Regulation in 1908, which required immigrants to arrive in Canada via a direct route from their country of origin, without any intermediate stops.
- This regulation aimed to restrict immigration from India, as there were no direct ships from India to Canada.
The Komagata Maru Voyage
- In May 1914, the Komagata Maru, carrying 376 passengers, arrived in Vancouver’s Burrard Inlet. The majority of the passengers were Punjabi Sikhs. They intended to challenge Canada’s immigration policies by landing on Canadian soil.
- Canadian immigration officials denied the passengers entry due to the Continuous Passage Regulation. The ship was anchored in Vancouver’s harbour for two months while the passengers and their supporters onshore protested the decision.
- Tensions grew between the passengers, immigration officials, and the authorities. The passengers were isolated on the ship without sufficient provisions, leading to deteriorating conditions and protests.
- In July 1914, the Canadian government ordered the Komagata Maru to leave. When the ship did not comply, Canadian authorities forcibly boarded the vessel. A confrontation ensued, resulting in injuries and fatalities among the passengers.
- The Komagata Maru was escorted out of Canadian waters and returned to India. Upon arrival in Calcutta (now Kolkata), the passengers faced further challenges and opposition from the British colonial authorities.
Impact and Significance
- The Komagata Maru incident exposed the discriminatory immigration policies of Canada and led to legal and policy changes in the subsequent years.
- The incident galvanized the Indian community, both in Canada and India, to advocate for their rights and challenge oppressive immigration policies.
- The incident received international attention and raised awareness about racial discrimination and prejudice against immigrants.
- The Komagata Maru incident remains an important part of the history of Indian immigration to Canada and serves as a symbol of the struggle against discriminatory practices. In 2016, the Canadian government formally apologized for the incident.
The Komagata Maru incident is a poignant reminder of the hardships and discrimination faced by early Indian immigrants and their determination to seek justice and equal treatment in a foreign land. It is an integral part of the larger narrative of immigration, civil rights, and the fight against racial discrimination.
The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was a significant agreement between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the All-India Muslim League (AIML), two major political parties in British India. This pact marked an important step in Indian politics, as it represented an attempt to bridge the gap between the demands of the Hindu-majority INC and the Muslim League, which primarily represented the interests of the Muslim community.
Background
- The controversial partition of Bengal in 1905 by Lord Curzon had ignited strong protests, primarily by the INC.
- The partition was eventually reversed in 1911, but it highlighted the need for political cooperation among Indians.
- By the early 20th century, the communal divide between Hindus and Muslims was becoming increasingly prominent.
- The British colonial authorities often exploited these divisions to maintain control.
- The foundation of the AIML in 1906 marked the beginning of a more assertive political role for Muslims in India.
- The Simla Deputation in the same year presented a list of Muslim demands to Viceroy Lord Minto, including separate electorates and reserved seats.
Key Points of the Lucknow Pact
- In 1916, during the Lucknow Session of the INC, efforts were made to foster Hindu-Muslim unity and present a common front in their negotiations with the British.
- The Lucknow Pact endorsed separate electorates for Muslims, allowing them to vote for their own representatives while remaining part of a joint electorate for other issues.
- The pact agreed to a system of reserved seats for religious minorities, including Muslims, in various legislatures. The Muslims were granted a higher number of seats than their population share, providing political safeguards.
- For constituencies where Muslims were in a minority, a joint electorate was established, allowing voters of all communities to participate.
- The Lucknow Pact also demanded greater provincial autonomy, calling for the transfer of power to elected Indian representatives at the provincial level.
- The Lucknow Pact was a historic moment in Indian politics as it showcased Hindu-Muslim cooperation. It was seen as a crucial step in fostering unity against British colonial rule.
- The pact recognized the rights and interests of Muslims in India and established a mechanism for their political representation.
- The INC and AIML’s ability to come together demonstrated their growing political maturity and their realization that united action was necessary to address their respective concerns.
- The pact’s success led to the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms in 1919, which introduced elements of self-governance at the provincial level, furthering the political demands of Indians.
- While the Lucknow Pact was a significant step toward unity, it did not eliminate communal tensions, which would resurface in the coming years.
The Home Rule Movement in India, led by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, was a significant political campaign during the years 1915-1916. This movement aimed to demand self-governance or “Home Rule” for India within the British Empire. Here’s an overview of the movement:
Background
- Annie Besant, an Irish theosophist, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, a prominent Indian nationalist leader, were key figures in the Home Rule Movement. They had been associated with various social and political causes.
- The outbreak of World War I in 1914 provided an opportunity for Indian leaders to press their demands for self-governance, as the British were seeking support from their colonies, including India, in the war effort.
Key Features of the Home Rule Movement
- The movement’s primary objective was to achieve self-governance for India, akin to dominion status within the British Empire. This was not a call for full independence but aimed to secure greater autonomy within the empire.
- Annie Besant founded the All India Home Rule League in September 1916, while Bal Gangadhar Tilak established the All India Home Rule League (Lokamanya) in April 1916. These two leagues operated independently and had a common goal.
- The Home Rule Movement saw significant participation from across India. It spread to various provinces, including Bombay, Madras, Delhi, and Bihar.
- Annie Besant used her newspaper “New India,” while Tilak utilized his Marathi publications to mobilize public opinion and promote the Home Rule idea.
- The movement also emphasized the promotion of Indian culture, languages, and traditions. It was seen as a way to assert Indian identity within the British colonial framework.
- The leaders organized rallies, processions, and public meetings to garner support for the Home Rule Movement. Tilak’s ability to connect with the masses was a key feature of the movement.
Outcome and Impact
- The Home Rule Movement significantly raised awareness about self-governance and political rights among the Indian masses. It played a crucial role in mobilizing public opinion in favour of constitutional reforms.
- The British government was compelled to respond to the growing demand for self-governance. This led to the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919, which introduced elements of self-governance in India.
- The movement marked a resurgence of political activism in India, laying the foundation for future political developments and mass movements during the struggle for independence.
- The Home Rule Movement inspired and influenced future leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, who returned to India in 1915 and joined the freedom struggle.
- The movement represented a rare instance of cooperation between the moderate and extremist factions of the Indian National Congress.
The Home Rule Movement demonstrated the readiness of the Indian people for self-governance and contributed to the eventual constitutional reforms and India’s journey toward independence.
The August Declaration of 1917, also known as the Montagu Declaration, was a significant policy statement made by the British government during World War I. It marked a crucial turning point in British-Indian relations and had a profound impact on the Indian independence movement. The declaration was named after the then-Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu.
Key points of the August Declaration
- The declaration stated that the British government’s ultimate goal was the gradual introduction of self-governing institutions with a view to India’s progressive realization of responsible government. This marked a significant shift in British policy, as it acknowledged the Indian people’s aspirations for greater self-rule.
- The declaration promised constitutional reforms in India, which would be based on the principle of responsible government. It was understood that Indians would be increasingly involved in governing their own country.
- The British government expressed its intention to extend the franchise and provide more Indians with the opportunity to be elected to legislative bodies. It also sought to ensure adequate representation for minority communities.
- The declaration proposed separate schemes for the governance of the Indian central government and provincial governments. While the central government would handle defence, foreign affairs, and communications, the provinces would have greater authority over other matters.
- The British government expressed its intention to increase the participation of Indians in the administration of their own country at all levels, from local to national.
- The declaration recognized India’s support for Britain during World War I and stated that India’s loyalty deserved “immediate consequences.”
- The British government hoped that the August Declaration would secure the support of Indians and maintain stability in the face of wartime challenges.
The August Declaration was received with a mix of hope and scepticism by Indian political leaders and the public. While many welcomed the promise of self-government, there were concerns about the specifics of the reforms, the timeline for their implementation, and the sincerity of the British government.
The declaration set the stage for further discussions and negotiations between Indian leaders and the British government. These discussions eventually led to the Government of India Act of 1919, also known as the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, which introduced significant constitutional changes, including the expansion of legislative councils and the devolution of powers to provinces.
The August Declaration, while not fully meeting Indian aspirations, was a pivotal moment in the path to Indian self-rule and independence. It demonstrated the power of political pressure and the Indian people’s determination to shape their own destiny.
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