Akbar, the great Mughal Emperor, is known for his progressive and inclusive religious views, which were a departure from the religious orthodoxy of his time. His views on religion played a significant role in shaping his policies and governance.

During Akbar’s reign, his relationship with the ulama (Islamic scholars and clerics) was marked by both cooperation and occasional tension. Akbar initiated several social and religious reforms that sometimes challenged the traditional authority of the ulama. Here’s an overview of Akbar’s relations with the ulama and the social reforms he introduced:

1.1. Relations with the Ulama

Religious Tolerance: Akbar’s policies of religious tolerance were met with mixed reactions from the Ulama. While some Islamic scholars appreciated his efforts to promote harmony and tolerance among different religious communities, others viewed his actions as heretical and a departure from orthodox Islamic practices.

Din-i Ilahi: Akbar’s attempt to create a syncretic religion called Din-i Ilahi, which blended elements of various faiths, was met with resistance from the Ulama. Many Islamic scholars saw this as a challenge to orthodox Islam and criticized Akbar for it.

Abolition of Jizya: Akbar’s decision to abolish the Jizya tax on non-Muslims was a significant departure from traditional Islamic taxation policies. While this was seen as a gesture of religious tolerance, it faced opposition from some Ulama who believed that non-Muslims should pay this tax.

Marriage Alliances: Akbar’s marriage alliances with Hindu princesses, including his marriage to Mariam-uz-Zamani (Hira Kunwari), raised concerns among some Islamic scholars who believed that a Muslim ruler should not marry outside the faith.

1.2. Social Reforms

Akbar introduced a series of social reforms during his reign, some of which had a significant impact on traditional Islamic practices and norms. These reforms included:

Abolition of Sati: Akbar banned the practice of Sati, in which widows self-immolated on their husband’s funeral pyres. This reform aimed at protecting women’s rights and preventing coerced self-immolation.

Legalization of Widow Remarriage: Akbar permitted the remarriage of widows, a practice that was previously discouraged in Islamic society. This reform aimed to provide social and economic security to widows.

Land Revenue Reforms: While not directly related to social issues, Akbar’s land revenue reforms, such as the Zabt system, aimed at reducing the economic burden on peasants, which had social implications.

Din-i Ilahi: Although not widely accepted, Akbar’s attempt to create a syncretic religion called Din-i Ilahi was a social reform that aimed to bridge religious divides and promote unity.

Promotion of Persian Language: Akbar encouraged the use of the Persian language in his administration, which had a significant impact on the culture and society of the Mughal Empire. Persian became a lingua franca and played a role in fostering cultural exchanges.

Dahsala System: Under the Dahsala system, the government collected one-third of the agricultural produce as revenue. This system was considered more equitable and provided stability in revenue collection.

Religious Freedom: Akbar’s policies promoted religious freedom, allowing individuals to practice their faith without fear of persecution. He did not force conversions or impose his own religious beliefs on his subjects.

Cultural Patronage: Akbar was a patron of art and culture. He encouraged the creation of artworks that depicted scenes from different religious traditions, reflecting his appreciation for the cultural diversity within his empire.

The policy of Sulh-i Kul: Akbar’s policy of “sulh-i kul” or universal tolerance aimed at fostering peace and harmony among people of different religious backgrounds. This policy had a significant impact on the social fabric of his empire.

Mansabdari System: Akbar’s introduction of the Mansabdari system, which ranked officials based on their “mansabs” or ranks, helped create a meritocratic administrative structure and reduced corruption.

Banned child marriage: Akbar banned child marriage in 1564. He set the minimum age of marriage for girls at 16 and boys at 18.

Raised the minimum age of marriage for girls: Akbar raised the minimum age of marriage for girls from 14 to 16 in 1564.

Promoted education: Akbar promoted education by establishing schools and libraries. He also encouraged scholars from different religions to come to his court and share their knowledge.

Improved the status of women: Akbar improved the status of women by giving them more rights and opportunities. For example, he allowed them to own property and to inherit from their fathers.

Akbar’s religious views during the early phase of his reign (1556-1573) were marked by a growing interest in religious diversity and a pursuit of religious tolerance and harmony. His evolving religious outlook had a significant impact on his policies and interactions with different religious communities. Here are key aspects of Akbar’s religious views during this period:

Religious Tolerance: Akbar’s early years as emperor saw a commitment to religious tolerance. He aimed to create an inclusive and harmonious society where people of various religious backgrounds could coexist peacefully. This commitment to religious tolerance was a response to the religious diversity within his empire.

Interest in Religious Discussions: Akbar’s curiosity about different faiths and beliefs led him to host discussions and debates among scholars and religious leaders of various traditions. He established the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri, where scholars from Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Jainism, and other religions gathered to exchange ideas.

Din-i Ilahi: During this period, Akbar developed a syncretic religious philosophy known as Din-i Ilahi or the “Religion of God.” It aimed to incorporate elements from different religions, including Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity, into a new belief system. Akbar himself followed this philosophy.

Abolition of Pilgrimage Tax: To promote religious harmony, Akbar abolished the pilgrimage tax on Hindus, which had been imposed during earlier Mughal rule. This gesture was seen as a move to alleviate the burden on non-Muslims and build trust with the Hindu community.

Promotion of Religious Freedom: Akbar’s policies allowed individuals to practice their faith freely, without fear of persecution or discrimination. He did not force conversions or impose his own religious beliefs on his subjects.

Marriage Alliances: Akbar strategically formed marriage alliances with Rajput princesses, which not only strengthened political ties with Rajputana but also demonstrated his willingness to accept Hindu traditions and customs within the royal family.

Openness to New Ideas: Akbar was open to exploring and understanding new religious and philosophical ideas. He engaged in discussions with scholars and sought to learn from different religious traditions.

Cultural Syncretism: Akbar’s policies also extended to the realm of culture. He encouraged the creation of artworks that depicted scenes from different religious traditions, reflecting his appreciation for cultural diversity within his empire.

During the second phase of his reign from 1573 to 1580, Akbar’s religious views continued to evolve, and his initiatives, including the Ibadat Khana, played a significant role in shaping his approach to religion and governance. This period witnessed a deeper exploration of religious ideas and a move towards greater religious synthesis. Here’s an overview of Akbar’s religious views during the second phase of his reign, with a focus on the Ibadat Khana:

The Ibadat Khana (House of Worship): The Ibadat Khana, established by Akbar in Fatehpur Sikri in 1575, served as a central hub for religious discussions, debates, and interactions among scholars and leaders of various faiths. It became a symbol of Akbar’s commitment to religious tolerance and dialogue.

Openness to Different Faiths: Akbar continued to engage with scholars, Sufis, and religious leaders from various religious traditions, including Islam, Hinduism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity. He encouraged discussions that transcended religious boundaries and aimed to foster mutual understanding.

Religious Debates: At the Ibadat Khana, religious debates were held where scholars from different faiths presented their views. Akbar himself actively participated in these discussions, demonstrating his eagerness to explore and learn about diverse religious perspectives.

Quest for a Universal Faith: During this phase, Akbar’s interest in religious syncretism deepened. He sought to find commonalities among different faiths and explored the possibility of creating a universal religion that could bridge the gaps between Islam and other religions.

Din-i Ilahi: The Din-i Ilahi, which was initiated earlier, continued to gain prominence during this phase. While it didn’t become a widely practised religion, it reflected Akbar’s desire to create a syncretic faith that incorporated elements from various belief systems.

Influence of Sufism: Sufi mysticism continued to influence Akbar’s religious views. Sufi ideas of spiritual unity and tolerance resonated with him and contributed to his inclusive approach to religion.

Eclectic Spirituality: Akbar’s religious journey during this phase exhibited an eclectic spirituality. He appreciated the moral and ethical teachings found in different religions and sought to incorporate these values into his governance.

Impact on Governance: Akbar’s evolving religious views had a significant impact on his governance. His policies of religious tolerance and accommodation extended beyond mere rhetoric, as he actively worked to create an environment where people of diverse faiths could coexist peacefully.

Later Phases of Rule: It’s important to note that Akbar’s religious views continued to evolve beyond this phase. In the later years of his reign, he shifted towards a more introspective and syncretic approach to religion, seeking common ethical principles while respecting the diversity of faiths.

Akbar’s religious views underwent a significant transformation during his reign, marked by debates, including the Mahzar, which led to a breach of orthodox Islamic practices. Here’s an overview of this phase in Akbar’s religious journey:

Religious Debates: Akbar’s interest in religious debates continued to evolve during his reign. He engaged in extensive discussions and dialogues with scholars, theologians, and religious leaders from various faiths. These debates were instrumental in shaping his religious views.

Formation of the Mahzar: One of the most notable developments during this phase was the convening of the Mahzar in 1580. The Mahzar, also known as the “Inquisition,” was a religious assembly convened by Akbar. It brought together scholars and theologians from different religious backgrounds to discuss and deliberate on theological matters.

Purpose of the Mahzar: Akbar convened the Mahzar to foster religious harmony, understanding, and consensus among his diverse subjects. He sought to reconcile the differences between different religious communities within his empire.

Examination of Religious Beliefs: The Mahzar examined various religious beliefs and practices, including Islamic orthodoxy. It aimed to evaluate traditional Islamic interpretations and challenge the authority of orthodox religious scholars.

Break with Orthodox Islam: The proceedings of the Mahzar and Akbar’s religious policies led to a breach of orthodox Islamic practices and religious authorities. Akbar’s approach to religion increasingly diverged from the orthodox interpretation of Islam.

Sulh-e Kul (Universal Peace): Akbar’s evolving religious views were encapsulated in the concept of Sulh-e Kul, which means “universal peace” or “peace with all.” This idea emphasized religious tolerance, acceptance of diverse faiths, and the promotion of a syncretic approach to religion.

Syncretic Faith: Akbar’s religious syncretism reached a zenith during this phase. He attempted to create a syncretic faith that incorporated elements from various religions while advocating for moral and ethical principles.

Influence of Sufism: Sufi mysticism continued to play a significant role in shaping Akbar’s religious outlook. Sufi ideas of love, unity, and spirituality resonated with him and influenced his approach to religion.

Promotion of Din-i Ilahi: Akbar’s efforts to create a syncretic faith known as Din-i Ilahi gained momentum during this phase. Although it did not become a mass religion, it reflected his desire to incorporate elements of different religions into a harmonious belief system.

Shift toward Ethical Religion: Akbar’s religious views increasingly focused on ethical and moral principles common to various religions. He valued universal ethics over specific rituals.

Legacy: Akbar’s religious debates and his emphasis on religious tolerance and inclusivity left a lasting legacy. His policies contributed to a more harmonious religious atmosphere in his empire and inspired later Mughal rulers, such as Akbar’s grandson, Dara Shikoh, in their explorations of religion and spirituality.

5. Ulama – Re-organisation of Madadd-i-Maash Grants

During Akbar’s reign, the relationship with the ulama (Islamic scholars and clergy) and the re-organization of Madadd-i-Maash grants were significant developments in the context of religious and administrative policies. Here’s an overview of these two aspects:

5. 1. Relations with the Ulama (Islamic Scholars):

Challenges: Akbar’s efforts to promote religious tolerance and inclusivity, as well as his engagement in religious debates, often faced resistance from orthodox Islamic scholars, including the ulama. Many ulama were critical of his policies, viewing them as departures from traditional Islamic practices.

Critiques and Opposition: Some ulama, like Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, criticized Akbar’s religious policies and accused him of heresy. They saw his efforts to include scholars from different faiths in religious discussions as undermining the authority of Islamic orthodoxy.

Akbar’s Approach: Akbar’s approach to the ulama was characterized by a desire for religious harmony. He sought to engage in dialogue and debates to foster understanding among scholars of different faiths. While he respected Islamic traditions, he aimed to reduce the influence of the Orthodox Ulama over state affairs.

5. 2. Re-organization of Madadd-i-Maash Grants:

Madadd-i-Maash Grants: Madadd-i-Maash grants were financial stipends or allowances provided to Islamic scholars and religious institutions to support their livelihood and educational activities. These grants were an important source of income for the ulama.

Re-organization: Akbar undertook a systematic re-organization of Madadd-i-Maash grants as part of his administrative reforms. He aimed to ensure transparency and accountability in the distribution of these grants.

Audit and Accountability: Akbar introduced an audit system to monitor the disbursement of these grants. The grants were subject to periodic reviews and assessments to prevent misuse and ensure that they were allocated to deserving scholars and institutions.

Religious Neutrality: Akbar’s reforms aimed to make the distribution of Madadd-i-Maash grants more religiously neutral. Grants were provided to scholars from various religious backgrounds, including not just Islamic scholars but also those from Hindu, Jain, and Zoroastrian traditions.

Impact: The re-organization of Madadd-i-Maash grants represented Akbar’s commitment to creating a more inclusive and equitable society. It reduced the dependency of the ulama on these grants for their livelihoods and allowed for greater diversity in religious scholarship.

The third and final phase of Akbar’s reign was marked by the development and promotion of Din-i Ilahi, the state-sponsored religion. This phase was a culmination of Akbar’s efforts to create a syncretic faith that incorporated elements from various religions. Here’s an overview of this phase, including Din-i Ilahi and its impact on the state:

6. 1. Din-i Ilahi (Religion of God):

Development: During this phase (circa 1582 onwards), Akbar took significant steps to develop Din-i Ilahi. He aimed to create a religious framework that transcended the boundaries of individual religions and promoted religious tolerance and unity.

Incorporation of Beliefs: Din-i Ilahi incorporated elements from different religions, including Hinduism, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Jainism. It emphasized ethical principles, monotheism, and reverence for the divine.

Central Tenets: Some central tenets of Din-i Ilahi included the belief in one God (Tauhid-i-Ilahi), respect for all living beings, ethical conduct, and a rejection of religious rituals and divisions.

Religious Syncretism: Din-i Ilahi represented Akbar’s vision of religious syncretism, where individuals from various religious backgrounds could find common ground and follow a shared spiritual path.

6. 2. State Promotion of Din-i Ilahi:

Official Religion: Akbar declared Din-i Ilahi as the official religion of the Mughal Empire. He encouraged his nobles and courtiers to embrace this faith.

Court Practices: In his court, Akbar introduced various rituals associated with Din-i Ilahi, including the offering of obeisance and reverence to the sun. He also established an official prayer hall (Ibadat Khana) where religious discussions and meetings took place.

Acceptance and Resistance: While some members of the Mughal court, including some nobles and intellectuals, embraced Din-i Ilahi, others remained sceptical or resisted its promotion.

Impact and Legacy:

Limited Adoption: Din-i Ilahi did not gain widespread acceptance among the masses, and it remained largely confined to the court and elite circles. The common people continued to practice their respective religions.

Legacy of Tolerance: Akbar’s promotion of Din-i Ilahi and his policies of religious tolerance left a lasting legacy. His efforts contributed to a more harmonious religious atmosphere in the empire and helped reduce religious strife.

Later Rulers: While Din-i Ilahi did not survive long after Akbar’s reign, his approach to religious tolerance and inclusivity inspired later Mughal rulers, such as Dara Shikoh, who continued to explore and promote syncretic religious ideas.

Administrative Reforms: Akbar’s policies during this phase were not limited to religion. He continued to implement administrative reforms, including land revenue systems (Dahsala system), the mansabdari system, and efforts to centralize and strengthen the Mughal administration.

Military Campaigns: Akbar also conducted military campaigns during this phase, expanding the Mughal Empire’s territorial reach and consolidating his rule.

Akbar’s policies of religious toleration were a hallmark of his reign and had a profound impact on the Mughal Empire. Here’s an overview of these policies and their significance:

7. 1. Religious Tolerance

Promotion of Religious Harmony: Akbar believed in fostering religious harmony and tolerance within his diverse empire. He recognized that India was home to people of various faiths, including Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Sikhs, Christians, and others. As a result, he sought to create an inclusive and pluralistic society.

Religious Debates: Akbar actively engaged in religious debates and discussions with scholars from different faiths. He invited scholars, theologians, and religious leaders to his court to exchange ideas and gain a deeper understanding of various religious traditions.

Abolition of Jizya: One of Akbar’s notable acts of religious tolerance was the abolition of the Jizya tax on non-Muslims. This tax had been imposed on non-Muslims in previous reigns but was lifted during Akbar’s rule, signifying his commitment to equal treatment of his subjects regardless of their religious beliefs.

Ibadat Khana (House of Worship)

Akbar established the Ibadat Khana, a “House of Worship” at Fatehpur Sikri, where scholars from different religious backgrounds gathered to engage in intellectual and spiritual discussions. It served as a platform for interfaith dialogue and exchange of ideas.

Divine Faith (Din-i Ilahi):

While Akbar did not convert to a different religion, he did attempt to create a syncretic faith called Din-i Ilahi (Religion of God). This faith incorporated elements from various religions and emphasized monotheism, ethical principles, and reverence for the divine. However, Din-i Ilahi did not gain widespread acceptance and remained limited to the court and elite circles.

7. 2. Integration of Hindus:

Akbar took several steps to integrate the Hindu majority into his administration and society:

• Hindu Officials: He appointed Hindus to high-ranking administrative positions, recognizing their competence and contribution.
• Marriage Alliances: Akbar fostered relationships with Hindu Rajput kingdoms through matrimonial alliances, which helped in political stability.
• Removal of Restrictions: He removed certain restrictions on Hindu practices and temples, ensuring greater religious freedom for his subjects.

7.3. Policy of Sulh-i-Kul (Peace with All):

Akbar’s overarching policy was Sulh-i-Kul, which translates to “Peace with All.” This policy was a declaration of religious tolerance and a commitment to create a just and harmonious society where individuals of different faiths could coexist peacefully.

Significance

• Akbar’s policies of religious toleration laid the foundation for a more inclusive and diverse Mughal Empire.
• They contributed to a climate of religious tolerance and reduced sectarian tensions within the empire.
• Akbar’s legacy of religious tolerance continued to inspire later Mughal rulers and leaders in India.
• His approach to governance and religious inclusivity left an indelible mark on India’s cultural and historical heritage.