Northern India in the first half of the eighteenth century witnessed significant political, social, and economic developments, as well as a changing power dynamic. The Mughal Empire, which had been a dominant power in Northern India for several centuries, was in a state of decline. Weak leadership, succession disputes, and external invasions had weakened the central authority of the Mughal emperors. In the absence of strong central control, various regional powers and states emerged. The Marathas, Sikhs, Rajputs, Jats, and various nawabs (provincial governors) asserted their autonomy and established their domains in different parts of Northern India.

• Bahadur Shah I (1643-1712) was the eighth Mughal emperor of India.
• He was the second son of Aurangzeb, the sixth Mughal emperor, and Dilras Banu Begum, a Persian princess. Bahadur Shah was born in Burhanpur, India, on October 14, 1643.
• Bahadur Shah’s early life was marked by conflict. He was often at odds with his father, Aurangzeb, who was a strict and demanding ruler.
• In 1681, Bahadur Shah was accused of plotting against Aurangzeb and was imprisoned for two years.
• In 1707, Aurangzeb died and Bahadur Shah succeeded him to the throne.  Bahadur Shah was a more tolerant and liberal ruler than his father.
• He repealed many of Aurangzeb’s harsh policies, such as the Jizya tax on non-Muslims. He also promoted religious harmony and patronized the arts.
• Bahadur Shah’s reign was also marked by conflict. He faced challenges from his brothers, his nobles, and the Maratha Empire.
• In 1709, Bahadur Shah’s brother Azam Shah rebelled against him. Azam Shah was defeated and killed, but the rebellion weakened Bahadur Shah’s position.
• Bahadur Shah also faced challenges from the Maratha Empire. The Marathas were a Hindu confederation that was expanding its power in India.
• In 1710, the Marathas defeated Bahadur Shah’s army at the Battle of Chakan. This defeat further weakened Bahadur Shah’s position.
• Bahadur Shah died on February 27, 1712, at the age of 68. He was succeeded by his son Jahandar Shah.

1.1. The Struggle for Wizarat

• The “struggle for wizarat” refers to the conflict between the Mughal emperor and his nobles for control of the government.
• The wizarat was the office of the wazir, or prime minister. The wazir was the most powerful official in the Mughal government, and he was responsible for running the day-to-day affairs of the state.
• Under Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire had become highly centralized. Aurangzeb had concentrated power in his own hands and had reduced the power of the nobles.
• However, after Aurangzeb’s death, the nobles began to reassert their power.
• Bahadur Shah was a weak ruler, and he was unable to control the nobles. The nobles began to form factions and compete with each other for power.
• This struggle for wizarat weakened the Mughal government and made it vulnerable to attack from its enemies.
• The struggle for wizarat was one of the factors that contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire.
• By the early 18th century, the Mughal Empire was in decline. The empire was facing challenges from the Maratha Empire, the Sikhs, and the British East India Company.
• The struggle for wizarat further weakened the empire and made it easier for its enemies to defeat it.

• Rajput affairs in the first half of the eighteenth century were dominated by the struggle between the Rajputs and the Mughal Empire.
• The Rajputs were a group of Hindu warrior clans who ruled over large parts of northern and central India.
• The Mughal Empire was a Muslim empire that had ruled over India for over two centuries.
• The Rajputs had been allies of the Mughals for much of the seventeenth century.
• However, the relationship between the two sides deteriorated during the reign of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (1658-1707).
• Aurangzeb was a devout Muslim who sought to impose Islamic rule over India.
• He imposed several taxes on non-Muslims and destroyed Hindu temples. This led to a series of Rajput revolts against the Mughals.
• After Aurangzeb died in 1707, the Mughal Empire began to decline.
• The Rajputs took advantage of this decline to expand their power and influence.
• They formed alliances with each other and with other regional powers, such as the Marathas and the Sikhs.
• In the early eighteenth century, the Rajputs were led by several powerful rulers, such as Jai Singh II of Amber and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Jodhpur.
• These rulers were able to defeat the Mughals in several battles and expand their territories.
• However, the Rajputs were unable to unite under a single leader. This made it difficult for them to coordinate their efforts against the Mughals.
• As a result, the Mughals were able to regain some of their power in the mid-eighteenth century.
• Despite the challenges they faced, the Rajputs were able to maintain their independence and autonomy throughout the eighteenth century.
• They played a key role in the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of regional powers in India.

• The 18th century in India was marked by significant political turmoil and transformations.
• One of the pivotal regions where these changes were most pronounced was the Deccan plateau, and at the heart of these events were the Marathas.
• As the 18th century unfolded, the Marathas found themselves entangled in a complex web of internal strife, external threats, and political intrigue, leading to a pronounced accentuation of the party struggle within their ranks.

Early Unity and Expansion

• Shivaji’s successors, particularly Chhatrapati Shahu, continued the endeavour to strengthen the Maratha Empire.
• They forged alliances with various Maratha chieftains, collectively referred to as sardars or nobles, creating a formidable force.
• The Marathas extended their dominions from the Deccan into northern India, annexing crucial regions and establishing their influence over a vast expanse.

Succession Quandaries and the Party Struggle

• One of the significant factors contributing to the accentuation of the party struggle among the Marathas was the intricate issue of succession.
• Unlike many other princely states in India, the Marathas did not adhere to a well-defined hereditary succession system for their leadership.
• This lack of clarity and consensus often led to disputes and power struggles, frequently accompanied by violence, as different factions vied for control.

Factional Leadership

• The Maratha Empire was subdivided into various factions, each under the leadership of prominent families or figures.
• The primary factions included the Peshwas (prime ministers), the Bhonsles, the Holkars, the Scindias, and the Gaekwads.
• These factions were not merely regional power centres; they frequently possessed divergent interests and ambitions, which served to intensify the party struggle.

The Peshwa and Political Dominance

• The office of the Peshwa, or prime minister, played a pivotal role in Maratha politics.
• While officially serving as the chief administrator, in practice, the Peshwa wielded substantial power.
• The appointment and removal of Peshwas became focal points of political manoeuvring and conflict among the Marathas.

External Threats and Armed Conflicts

The Maratha Empire encountered external threats from various quarters, further aggravating the party struggle within the empire:

1. The Nizam of Hyderabad, Asaf Jah I, posed a substantial challenge to Maratha authority in the Deccan. His military campaigns and territorial expansion directly conflicted with Maratha’s interests.
2. Despite its declining power, the Mughal Empire sought to reassert its authority over its former territories, including regions held by the Marathas. Engagements with the Mughals only added to the Marathas’ predicaments.
3. The British East India Company was rapidly extending its influence in India. The Marathas found themselves embroiled in conflicts with the British over territorial disputes, trade matters, and other contentious issues.

The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and its Ramifications

The Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 stands as a critical turning point in Maratha history. It resulted in a catastrophic defeat for the Marathas at the hands of Ahmad Shah Durrani, also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali. This battle brought about profound consequences:

1. The defeat at Panipat severely undermined the Maratha Empire. It resulted in significant losses of soldiers and leaders, severely denting Maratha’s military capabilities.
2. The defeat spotlighted the deep divisions within the Maratha leadership. It fueled blame games and rivalries, further accentuating the party struggle.
3. With their military prowess diminished, the Marathas became more susceptible to external threats.

The Complex Relationship with the Mughals

• The Marathas had always maintained a complex relationship with the Mughal Empire.
• While they often challenged Mughal authority and asserted their independence, they also sought Mughal recognition and titles.
• This intricate relationship added a layer of complexity to Maratha politics and contributed to the ongoing political instability.

Economic Drain and Popular Uprisings

• The Maratha chieftains levied heavy taxes and extracted revenue to sustain their expanding empire.
• This economic burden on the common people led to social unrest and sporadic uprisings.
• The economic strain on the populace further inflamed discontent and contributed to the party struggle.

Influence of Foreign Powers

• The involvement of foreign powers, such as the British and the French, in Indian politics further complicated the party struggle among the Marathas.
• These colonial powers often supported different Maratha factions for their strategic interests, thereby exacerbating the internal divisions.

End of Maratha Dominance and British Colonial Rule

• By the early 19th century, the Maratha Empire had disintegrated into smaller princely states, each ruled by a different Maratha faction or family.
• British colonial rule continued to expand, and the Marathas gradually lost their prominence as a political force in India.
• The accentuation of the party struggle, coupled with external pressures, ultimately contributed to the decline of the Maratha Empire.

At the beginning of the 18th century, the Mughal Empire was already in a state of decline. The once-mighty empire was beset by internal strife, economic challenges, and external invasions. The political landscape was marked by the shifting influence of different nobles, factions, and claimants to the throne. The struggle for the “New” Wizarat, or the office of the vizier, in the Mughal Empire during 1712-13 was a pivotal moment in the empire’s history. It revolved around the power dynamics between two key figures: Zulfiqar Khan and Jahandar Shah.  

Jahandar Shah whose full name was Mirza Mu’izz-ud-Din Beig Muhammad Khan was a Mughal emperor who ruled from 1712 to 1713. He ascended the throne with the support of his father; Bahadur Shah I. Jahandar Shah’s reign was short-lived and marked by his perceived weakness and indulgence in pleasures, making him susceptible to manipulation by his courtiers.

Zulfiqar Khan, also known as Saif-ud-Din Muhammad Khan, was a prominent noble in the Mughal court. He held the prestigious office of the diwan or finance minister under Bahadur Shah I. Zulfiqar Khan was a skilled administrator and military leader, and he played a significant role in the court’s power dynamics.

The Struggle for the Vizierate

• The vizier, or wazir, was one of the most influential positions in the Mughal Empire.
• The vizier served as the chief minister, responsible for advising the emperor, managing the empire’s affairs, and overseeing administrative matters.
• Given its significance, the office of the vizier often became a focal point of political manoeuvring.
• The struggle for the “New” Wizarat began when Jahandar Shah ascended the throne.
• Initially, Zulfiqar Khan continued to serve as the diwan under the new emperor. However, internal conflicts and rivalries soon emerged.

Factors Contributing to the Struggle

Several factors contributed to the power struggle between Jahandar Shah and Zulfiqar Khan:

• The Mughal court was divided into various factions, each vying for power and influence.
• These factions often had their preferred candidates for key positions, including the vizierate.
• Jahandar Shah’s perceived weakness as a ruler made him susceptible to manipulation by courtiers.
• Zulfiqar Khan, as a capable and influential noble, sought to exploit this weakness to consolidate his power.
• Zulfiqar Khan’s role as the diwan gave him control over the empire’s finances.
• This financial power added to his influence and made him a formidable figure within the court.
• The Mughal Empire faced external threats, particularly from the emerging powers of the Marathas and the Persian Empire. This external pressure further complicated the internal power struggles.

Outcome

• The struggle for the vizierate culminated in a coup against Jahandar Shah in early 1713.
• Zulfiqar Khan, with the support of other courtiers and factions, seized power and assumed the office of the vizier.
• Jahandar Shah was deposed, and the new vizier became the de facto ruler of the empire.
• However, this turn of events did not bring stability to the Mughal Empire.
• Zulfiqar Khan’s administration faced numerous challenges, including economic issues and external threats.
• Furthermore, his ambitions and the influence of other courtiers continued to shape the empire’s politics.

Legacy

• The struggle for the “New” Wizarat and its aftermath underscored the fragile and tumultuous nature of Mughal politics during the early 18th century.
• It highlighted how the empire’s decline and internal conflicts weakened the central authority, allowing powerful nobles and courtiers to assert control.
• This period marked the beginning of a series of short-lived reigns and changing power dynamics in the Mughal court, ultimately leading to the empire’s gradual disintegration in the face of external pressures and internal strife.

At the dawn of the 18th century, the Mughal Empire was already in a state of decline. The empire was grappling with a weakened central authority, economic challenges, external invasions, and internal strife among nobles. The Saiyid Brothers emerged as influential figures against this backdrop. The Saiyid Brothers, Alim-ud-Din Ahmad Khan and Hussain Ali Khan were powerful nobles in the Mughal Empire during the early 18th century. Their struggle for the ‘New’ Wizarat, or the office of the vizier, played a significant role in the empire’s politics. 

Saiyid Brothers

Alim-ud-Din Ahmad Khan, commonly known as Saiyid Alim, was the elder brother.

Hussain Ali Khan, known as Saiyid Hussain, was the younger brother.

Struggle for the Vizierate

• The position of the vizier, or wazir, was one of the most prestigious and influential offices in the Mughal Empire.
• The vizier served as the chief minister, responsible for advising the emperor, managing the empire’s affairs, and overseeing administrative matters.
• Given its significance, the office of the vizier often became a focal point of political manoeuvring.

Factors Contributing to the Struggle

Several factors contributed to the Saiyid Brothers’ struggle for the ‘New’ Wizarat:

• The Saiyid Brothers gained influence at the Mughal court due to their association with powerful nobles and their role as key advisors to the emperor.
• The Mughal court was characterized by factionalism and rivalries among different groups of nobles.
• The Saiyid Brothers aligned themselves with factions that supported their bid for power.
• During this period, the Mughal emperors were often perceived as weak and ineffective.
• This made it easier for influential nobles like the Saiyid Brothers to assert their authority and influence imperial decisions.

Conflict and Confrontation

• The struggle for the ‘New’ Wizarat involved intense political manoeuvring, intrigue, and confrontation.
• The Saiyid Brothers sought to consolidate their power by undermining the authority of the Mughal emperor, Muhammad Shah, and side-lining rival nobles.
• The Saiyid Brothers’ efforts culminated in their virtual control over the Mughal administration.
• They effectively held the office of the vizier and exercised immense influence over state affairs.
• Their reign behind the scenes marked a significant shift in the balance of power within the empire.

Legacy

• The Saiyid Brothers’ ascendancy to power and their control over the ‘New’ Wizarat highlighted the weakened central authority of the Mughal emperor.
• It exemplified the extent to which powerful nobles could manipulate imperial politics for their gain.
• However, their rule was marked by controversy and opposition from various quarters.
• The Saiyid Brothers faced challenges from rival nobles and factions, and their influence waned over time.

• The Saiyid “New” Wizarat was a period of reform and recovery for the Mughal Empire under the control of the Saiyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan, from 1713 to 1722.
• The Saiyid brothers were two powerful nobles who had risen to prominence during the reign of Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar (1641-1707).
• They were both skilled administrators and military commanders. After Bahadur Shah’s death, the Mughal Empire was plunged into a civil war.
• The Saiyid brothers supported Prince Jahandar Shah, who emerged victorious in the war and became emperor in 1712.
• Jahandar Shah was a weak and inexperienced ruler. He was more interested in pleasure and entertainment than in governing the empire.
• The Saiyids took advantage of Jahandar Shah’s weakness and began to consolidate their power.
• They appointed themselves to key positions in the government and began to implement reforms.
• The Saiyids’ reforms were aimed at improving the administration of the empire and strengthening the military.
• They also tried to reduce the corruption and inefficiency that had plagued the Mughal government.
• The Saiyids’ reforms were successful, and the Mughal Empire began to recover under their rule.
• However, the Saiyids’ success aroused the jealousy of other Mughal nobles. The nobles were unhappy with the Saiyids’ power and influence.
• They also felt that the Saiyids were too ambitious and were trying to usurp the power of the emperor.
• In 1719, the Saiyids deposed Farrukhsiyar and installed Rafi-ud-Darajat as emperor.
• Rafi-ud-Darajat died a few months later, and the Saiyids installed his brother, Rafi-ud-Daulah, as emperor. However, Rafi-ud-Daulah also died a few months later.
• The Saiyids were unable to find a suitable candidate for the throne. They eventually decided to install Muhammad Shah, the grandson of Bahadur Shah Zafar, as emperor.
• Muhammad Shah was a young and inexperienced ruler, but he was also a weak and ineffective ruler.
• The Saiyids continued to rule the Mughal Empire through Muhammad Shah. They implemented several reforms and strengthened the military.
• However, their power began to decline in the 1720s. The Saiyids were unable to control the Mughal nobles, and they were eventually overthrown in 1722.
• The Saiyid “New” Wizarat was a significant but short-lived period of reform and recovery for the Mughal Empire.
• The Saiyid brothers were able to implement several important reforms and strengthen the military.
• However, they were unable to sustain their reforms, and the empire eventually collapsed.
• The Saiyid “New” Wizarat also highlighted the growing divisions within the Mughal nobility.
• The Mughal nobles were more interested in their power and prestige than in the unity and stability of the empire.
• This was a major factor in the decline and eventual collapse of the Mughal Empire.

The early 18th century was a tumultuous period in Mughal history, characterized by a weakening central authority, regional revolts, foreign invasions, and economic challenges. During this era, the role of the vizier or wazir became even more critical as they effectively managed the empire’s affairs and served as advisors to the Mughal emperors. The Wizarat (office of the vizier) of M. Amin Khan and Nizam-ul-Mulk represents a significant phase in the political landscape of the Mughal Empire during the early 18th century. These two influential figures played a crucial role in the administration and stabilization of the empire amidst a backdrop of chaos and decline.

Amin Khan

Also known as Mohammad Amin Khan Kokaltash, he was a prominent noble in the Mughal court. His administrative and military skills made him a valuable asset to the empire. His tenure as the vizier of the Mughal Empire was marked by several significant developments:

•  M. Amin Khan rose to prominence during the reign of Emperor Farrukhsiyar.
• He was appointed as the vizier and entrusted with the responsibility of managing the empire’s administration.
• The Saiyid brothers, Alim-ud-Din Ahmad Khan and Hussain Ali Khan were powerful figures at the Mughal court.
• A power struggle ensued between M. Amin Khan and the Saiyid brothers, leading to political manoeuvring and intrigue.
•  M. Amin Khan and his supporters successfully orchestrated the fall of the Saiyid brothers. This marked a significant shift in the balance of power within the Mughal court.

Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah

Nizam-ul-Mulk, often referred to as Asaf Jah was a distinguished administrator and military strategist. He is best known for his role in founding the Asaf Jahi dynasty in the Deccan. His tenure as the vizier of the Mughal Empire also had far-reaching consequences:

• Nizam-ul-Mulk faced the formidable Maratha Empire in the Deccan. His efforts to curb Maratha expansion led to the Battle of Rakshasbhuvan, a significant confrontation in 1724.
• Nizam-ul-Mulk’s most enduring legacy was his establishment of the Asaf Jahi dynasty in the Deccan.
• He became the Nizam (ruler) of Hyderabad, an autonomous state within the Mughal Empire, which continued to exist well into the 20th century.
• Nizam-ul-Mulk was known for his administrative acumen. He implemented a system of governance that brought stability to the Deccan region and allowed it to thrive economically.

Legacy

• The Wizarat of M. Amin Khan and Nizam-ul-Mulk reflected the complex and dynamic nature of Mughal politics during this period:
• Both M. Amin Khan and Nizam-ul-Mulk navigated treacherous political waters.
• They engaged in power struggles, alliances, and rivalries to secure their positions and influence the empire’s course.
• Nizam-ul-Mulk’s establishment of the Asaf Jahi dynasty signalled a trend towards regional autonomy within the Mughal Empire.
• This decentralization of power would continue in the subsequent decades.
• Despite the challenges they faced, both viziers played essential roles in stabilizing the empire, at least temporarily, during a period of considerable turmoil.
• Nizam-ul-Mulk’s legacy extended beyond his time as a vizier. The Asaf Jahi dynasty he founded would rule over the Deccan for centuries, demonstrating the lasting influence of his administrative reforms.

The period from 1725 to 1748 witnessed a crucial phase in Indian history marked by the rise of regional states and the beginning of foreign invasions. This era saw the decline of the once-mighty Mughal Empire, leading to the emergence of powerful regional players and foreign powers vying for influence in the Indian subcontinent. Here, we delve into the key events and dynamics of this transformative period:

The Decline of the Mughal Empire

• The Mughal Empire during this time was characterized by a series of weak and ineffective emperors who struggled to maintain control over their vast domains.
• The empire was plagued by internal strife, court intrigues, and power struggles. 
• As the Mughal central authority weakened, regional governors and nawabs began asserting greater autonomy in their respective territories. Many of them effectively became de facto rulers of their regions.

Rise of Regional States

• Several prominent regional states and dynasties emerged during this period, challenging Mughal hegemony.
• Some of the notable ones include the Marathas, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Sikhs in Punjab, and the Nawabs of Bengal.
• The Marathas, under the leadership of figures like Baji Rao I and Balaji Baji Rao, expanded their territories aggressively.
• They established the Maratha Confederacy and exerted significant influence in North India, especially in the Deccan.
• Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, who served as the Mughal vizier, established the Asaf Jahi dynasty and became the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• The Nizam’s rule marked the beginning of the prominent Hyderabad State.
• In the Punjab region, Sikh leaders organized themselves into a confederacy, setting the stage for the emergence of a Sikh state in the coming decades.

Foreign Invasions

• Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1739): One of the most significant foreign invasions during this period was carried out by Nadir Shah, the Persian ruler.
• In 1739, his forces invaded northern India, sacked Delhi, and looted the city’s treasures.
• The invasion highlighted the vulnerability of the Mughal Empire and further weakened its authority.
• Ahmad Shah Durrani’s Invasions: Ahmad Shah Durrani, also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali, launched multiple invasions into India from the northwest.
• His invasions, notably the Battle of Panipat in 1761, had a devastating impact on the stability of the region.

Impact and Legacy

1. The decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of regional powers led to a fragmented political landscape in India. This decentralization of authority set the stage for the emergence of numerous independent or semi-independent states.
2. Foreign invasions exposed the vulnerabilities of the Indian subcontinent and contributed to the further disintegration of the Mughal Empire. These invasions also facilitated the establishment of foreign trading posts and laid the groundwork for European colonialism in India.
3. Regional states like the Marathas, Hyderabad, and Bengal gained significant autonomy and began to exercise greater control over their territories. This regional sovereignty would play a crucial role in shaping India’s political map in the years to come.
4. The Sikh Confederacy’s consolidation of power in the Punjab marked the beginning of Sikh rule in the region, eventually leading to the establishment of the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh.