1. Causes of Nationalist Resurgence

Nationalist disillusionment with imperialism worldwide peace conferences and other peace treaties made it clear that the imperialistic powers had no intention of loosening their hold over the colonies they went on to divide colonies among themselves.

Impact of Russian Revolution –The October Revolution brought home the message that immense power lay with the people and masses capable of challenging the mightiest of tyrants.

2. Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and Government of India Act 1919 

• Also known as Montagu – Chelmsford reform (Montagu was Secretary of State for India and Lord Chelmsford was the Viceroy of India)
• It demarcated central and provincial subjects. The central and provincial legislature were authorized to make laws on their respective list of subjects. However, the structure of government continued to be centralized and unitary.
• Provisional subjects are further divided into two parts – transferred and reserved. Transferred subjects were to be administered by the governor with the aid of ministers responsible to the legislative council. The reserved subjects were to be administered by the governor and his executive council without being responsible to the legislative council, this dual scheme was Dyarchy. It introduced bicameralism and direct election in the country.
• It required three out of six members of the viceroy’s executive council (other than the commander-in-chief) to be Indian.
• It extended the principle of communal representation by providing an electorate for Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Indians and Europeans.
• It granted franchises to a limited number of people based on property, tax or education.
• It created new office of the High Commissioner for India in London and transferred some of the functions hitherto performed by the Secretary of State for India.
• It provides for the establishment of a public service commission. Central Public Service Commission was set up in 1926.
• It separated for the first time the central budget and provincial budget and authorised the provincial legislature to enact their budgets. It provided for the appointment of a statutory commission to inquire into and report on its working after ten years of its coming into force

3. Rowlatt Act

• In March 1919 it was passed this act authorized the government to imprison any person without trial and conviction in a court of law.
• Gandhi called a nationwide protest in February 1919.
• Gandhi organized a satyagraha sabha and roped in younger members of Home Rule. Leagues and pan-Islamists.
• Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act- First Mass Strike.

4. Emergence of Gandhi 

• Moderate Phase of Struggle (1894-1906): Phase of sending petitions and memorials. To unite different sections of Indians, he set up the Natal Indian Congress and started a paper Indian Opinion. 
• The phase of Passive Resistance or SatyaGraha (1906-1914): Use of the method of passive resistance or civil disobedience which Gandhi named Satyagraha.
• Satyagraha Against Registration Certificates (1906): New legislation in South Africa made it compulsory for Indians to carry at all times a certificate of registration with their fingerprints. Gandhi formed the Passive Resistance Association to conduct a campaign against this. The Indians under the leadership of Gandhi retaliated by publicly burning their registration certificate. 
• Campaign Against Restrictions on Indian Migration: A new legislation imposing restrictions on Indian migration. Indians defied this law by crossing over from one province to another and by refusing to produce licenses. 
• Setting up of Tolstoy Farm: Tolstoy Farm was meant to house the families of satyagraha and to give them a way to sustain themselves. 
• Campaign Against Poll Tax and Invalidation of Indian Marriages: Court order invalidation of all marriages not conducted according to Christian rites and registered by the registrar of marriages by implication Hindu, Muslim and Parsi marriages were illegal and children born out of such marriages illegitimate. The Indians treated this judgment as an insult to the honour of their women. Gandhi, Lord Hardinge, C.F Andrews and General Smuts an agreement was reached by which the government of South Africa conceded major Indian demands. Gandhi returned to India in 1915.

• Gandhi was requested by Rajkumar Shukla to look into the problems of the indigo planters of Champaran in Bihar. 
• The European planters had been forcing the peasants to grow indigo on 3/20 of the total land called the Tinkathia system. 
• When towards the end of the nineteenth century German synthetic dyes replaced indigo, the European planters demanded high rents and illegal dues from the peasants to maximize their profits before the peasants could shift to other crops, also peasants were forced to sell the produce at prices fixed by the Europeans.
• When Gandhi joined by Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Haq, Mahadeo Desai, Narhari Parekh, and J.B.Kriplani reached Champaran to probe into the matter the authorities ordered him to leave the area at once.
• Gandhi defied orders, and finally, the authorities retreated and permitted Gandhi to enquire. 
• Now government appointed a committee to go into the matter and nominated Gandhi as a member. 
• Gandhi was able to convince the authorities that the tinkathia system should be abolished and that peasants should be compensated for the illegal dues.  As a compromise with the planters, he agreed that only 25% of the money taken should be compensated.

• Ahmedabad Mill Strike 1918- First Hunger Strike:  There was a dispute between mill owners of Ahmadabad and the workers over the issue of discontinuation of the plague bonus. Gandhi asked the workers to go on a strike and demand a 35% increase in wages.  The employers were willing to concede a 20% bonus only. Gandhi undertook a fast unto death to strengthen the worker’s resolve and the fast also had the effect of putting pressure on mill owners who agreed to give workers a 35% increase in wages.
• Kheda Satyagraha 1918-First Non-Cooperation: Drought in 1918 led to crop failure in the Kheda district of Gujarat. According to the revenue code, if the yield was less than 1/4 of normal produce the farmers were entitled to remission but authorities refused to grant remission. Gandhi supported the peasant’s cause and asked them to withhold revenue. The authorities conceded. During the Kheda Satyagraha, many young nationalists such as Sardar Patel and Indulal Yagnik became Gandhi’s followers.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919): On Baisakhi day, a large crowd of people mostly from neighbouring villages, unaware of the prohibitory orders in the city had gathered in Small Park to protest against the arrest of their leaders, Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal. The army surrounded the gathering under orders from General Dyers blocked the only exit point and opened fire on an unarmed crowd.  Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest. 

Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement

Two movements emerged from separate issues, they adopted a common programme of action –that of non-violent non-cooperation. 

Khilafat issue

• Muslims were angered by the treatment meted out to Turkey by the British after the First World War
• Muslims in India and all over the world regarded the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader, Khalifa
• During the war Turkey had allied with Germany and Austria against the British
• When the war ended, the British took a stern attitude towards Turkey-
• Turkey was dismembered and the Khalifa was removed from power, this incensed Muslims all over the world
• In India Muslim demands from British
• a) Khalifa’s control over Muslim sacred places should be retained
• b)Khalifa should be left with sufficient territories after territorial arrangement
• In early 1919, a Khilafat committee was formed under the leadership of the Ali brothers(Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali), Maulana Azad, Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani to force the British government to change its attitude toward Turkey
• All India Khilafat conference held in Delhi in November 1919, a call was made for a boycott of British goods.
• Gandhi was the President of the All India Khilafat committee
• Congress was not united on this front while Gandhi was in favour of launching Satyagraha and non-cooperation against the government on the Khilafat issue, Tilak was opposed to it.
• In February 1920 a joint Hindu-Muslim deputation was sent to the viceroy to seek redressal of grievances on the issue of Khilafat
• June 1920 an all-party conference at Allahabad approved a programme of boycott of schools, colleges, law courts
• On August 31, 1920, the Khilafat committee started a campaign of non-cooperation and the movement was formally launched
• September 1920 a special session in Calcutta, the Congress approved a non –cooperation programme till the Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were removed and Swaraj was established
• Nagpur session of Indian National Congress December 1920-
• Programme of non-cooperation endorsed
• Congress decided to have the attainment of Swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means, thus committing itself to an extra-constitutional mass struggle
• Some important organizational changes were made – a congress working committee of 15 members was set up to lead the congress from now onwards, a provincial congress committee on linguistic lines, ward committees were organized and the entry fee was reduced to four annas
• At this stage some leaders like Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Beasant, G.S Kharpade and B.C Pal left the congress as they believed in a constitutional and lawful struggle while some others like Surendranath Banerjee founded Indian National Liberation Federation
• Talks between Gandhi and Reading, then Viceroy broke down
• On February 1, 1922, Gandhi threatened to launch civil disobedience from Bardoli (Gujarat)if –

1. a) Political prisoners were not released
2. b) Press control was not removed

Chauri Chaura Incident: A small village chauri chaura (Gorakhpur district UP). On 5 February 1922, an incident of violence occurred which prompted Gandhi to withdraw from the movement. CWC met at Bardoli in February 1922 and resolved to stop all activity. 

5. Swarajists and No-Changers

• A debate started among congressmen on what to do during the transition period, one section led by C.R.Das, Motilal Nehru and Ajmal Khan wanted an end to the boycott of legislative councils so that the nationalists could enter them to expose the basic weakness of these assemblies and use these council as an arena of political struggle, they wanted to end or mend these councils.
• Those advocating entry into legislative councils came to be known as the Swarajists, while the others who opposed the council entry, continuation of boycott and non-cooperation came to be known as No Changers –Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C.Rajagopalachari and M.A.Ansari.
• Differences over the question of council entry between the two schools resulted in the defeat of the Swarajists’ proposal at the Gaya session of the congress.
• R Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from the presidentship and secretaryship respectively Congress and announced the formation of the Congress Khilafat Swarajya Party with C.R Das as the president and Motilal Nehru as one of the secretaries.
• In the 1923 elections they fared well.
• In 1924 their position weakened, and the Responsivist among swarajists –Lala Lajpat Rai, Madan Mohan Malaviya and N.C. Kelkar advocated cooperation with the government.

6. Revolutionary Terrorism During 1920

Causes of revolutionary terrorism

• Russian Revolution ( 1917) and the success of the young soviet state.
• Newly sprouting communist groups.
• Journals publishing articles extolling self-sacrifice such as Atmasakti, Sarathi and Bijoli.
• Novels and books such as Bandi Jiwan by Sachin Sanyal and Pather Dabi by Sharatchandra Chatterjee

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA)

• Hindustan Republican Association later named as Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was founded in October 1924 in Kanpur by Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee and Sachin Sanyal to organize an armed revolution to overthrow the colonial government and establish its place as a Federal Republic of United States of India whose basic principle would be an adult franchise
• Kakori Robbery August 1925:  it was by HRA, Kakori was a village near Lucknow, and they looted its official railway cash, in this case, four were hanged-Bismil, Ashfaqullah, Roshan Singh and Rajendra Lahiri
• After Kakori’s setback the younger revolutionaries, inspired by socialist ideas set out to reorganize the Hindustan Republican Association at a historic meeting in the ruins of Ferozshah Kotla in Delhi. HSRA decided to work under a collective leadership and adopted socialism as its official goal
• Saunder’s Murder in Lahore, December 1928: during anti –Simon’s commission procession due to a lathi blow on Lala Lajpat Rai he succumbs to death
• Bhagat Singh, Azad and Raj guru shot dead Saunders, the police official responsible for the lathi-charge in Lahore. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Raj Guru were tried in the Lahore conspiracy case.
• Bomb in Central Legislative Assembly April 1929: Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt throw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on April 8, 1929, against the passage of the Public Safety Bill and Trade Dispute bill aimed at curtailing civil liberties
• Chittagong Armoury Raid April 1930: Surya Sen and his associates planned to occupy two main armouries
• Anti-Simon Commission Upsurge:  The Indian Statutory Commission popularly known as the Simon Commission, was named after its chairman Sir John Simon. The commission was to recommend to the government whether India was ready for further constitutional reform and on what lines. There were seven members and all whites in commission. Congress session in Madras 1927 under the presidency of M.A.Ansari decided to boycott the commission. 

7. Nehru Report 

• Dominion status.
• Rejection of separate electorates which had been the basis of constitutional reforms so far instead demanded joint electorates with reservation of seats for Muslims at the centre and in provinces where they were in minority in proportion to the Muslim population there with the right to contest additional seats.
• Linguistic provinces.
• Nineteen fundamental rights including equal rights for women, the right to form unions, and universal adult suffrage.
• Responsible government at the centre and in the provinces( The Indian Parliament at the centre to consist of a 500-member House of Representatives having a tenure of 5 years, elected based on adult suffrage, a 200-member senate to be elected by Provincial councils tenure of 7 years. The Central government was to be headed by a governor-general appointed by the British government but paid out of Indian revenues, who would act on the advice of the central executive council responsible to the Parliament.
• Provincial councils headed by the governor acting on the advice of the provincial executive council.
• Full protection of the cultural and religious interests of Muslims.
• Complete dissociation of state from religion.

Delhi Proposal 

Muslim leaders met in Delhi at the Muslim League Session and evolved four proposals for Muslim demands to be incorporated in the draft constitution and these proposals were accepted by the Madras session of the Congress

• Joint electorates in place of separate electorates with reserved seats for Muslims
• 1/3 representation to Muslims in the Central Legislative Assembly
• Representation of Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their population
• Formation of three new Muslim majority provinces-Sindh, Baluchistan and North–West Frontier Province and Hindu Mahasabha opposed this.

8. Jinnah’s Fourteen Demands

1. Federal constitution with residuary power to the provinces.
2. Provincial Autonomy
3. No constitutional amendment by the centre without the concurrence of the states constituting the Indian federation
4. All legislatures and elected bodies to have adequate representation of Muslims in every province without reducing a majority of Muslims in a province to a minority and equality
5. Adequate representation of Muslims in services and self-governing bodies
6. 1/3 Muslim representation in the central legislature
7. In any cabinet at the centre or in the provinces,1/3 are Muslims
8. Separate electorates
9. No bill or resolution in any legislature is to be passed if 3/4 of the minority community considers such a bill or resolution to be against their interests
10. Any territorial redistribution not to affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and NWFP
11. Separation of Sindh from Bombay
12. Constitutional reforms in the NWFP and Baluchistan
13. Full religious freedom to all communities
14. Protection of Muslim rights in religion, culture, education and languages

9. Civil Disobedience Movement

• The Lahore Congress of 1929 had authorized the congress working committee to launch a programme of civil disobedience including non-payment of taxes.
• On 26 January 1930 Independence Day was observed with the national flag being hoisted in different venues and patriotic songs being sung.
• In February 1930, a CWC meeting at Sabarmati Ashram invested Gandhi with full powers to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Gandhi’s ultimatum to Lord Irwin, then viceroy of India stating minimum demands had been ignored.

How Movement Progressed

• Dandi March also known as the Salt March and Dandi Satyagraha was an act of nonviolent civil disobedience led by Gandhi.
• On 12 March Gandhi set out from Sabarmati with 78 followers to reach the coast of Dandi a coastal village in Gujarat.
• On 6th April, they broke the salt law by making salt.
• Then movement broke across all over India.
• On 21 May Sarojini Naidu led marchers in Dharsana salt works.
• Rajagopalachari led a similar march on the southeast coast from Trichy to Vedaranyam in Tamil Nadu.
• Kelappan led a march in the Malabar region from Calicut to Payyanur.
• In Peshawar, the Satyagraha was organized and led by Gandhiji’s disciple, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan.
• In January 1931, Gandhi was released from prison. He later met with Lord Irwin, Viceroy of India and agreed to call satyagraha and to attend a second round table conference.
• In August 1931 Gandhi travelled to the conference as the sole representative of the nationalist INC.
• Boycott of foreign goods.
• In eastern India, payment of the Chowkidari tax was refused. This no-tax campaign became very popular in Bihar.
• Defiance of forest law in Maharashtra.

Significance: Mass participation, For Indian women the movement was the most liberating experience and Imports from Britain fell considerably. 

10. Gandhi Irwin Pact

• Immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted of violence
• Remission of all fines not yet collected
• Return of all lands not yet sold to third party
• Lenient treatment of those government servants who had resigned
• Right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption(not for sale)
• Right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing
• Withdrawal of emergency ordinance
• The viceroy turned down two demands of Gandhi-
• Public inquiry into police excess
• Commutation of Bhagat Singh and his comrade’s death sentence to life sentence
• Gandhi on behalf of the Congress agreed-
• To suspend the civil disobedience movement
• To participate in the next Round Table Conference

• Communal Award announced by British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald in Aug 1932, declared depressed classes to be minorities and entitled them to separate electorates.
• Ambedkar, M.C. Rajah and Madan Mohan Malaviya hammer out the compromise contained in the Poona Pact. 
• The Poona Pact signed by B.R. Ambedkar on behalf of the depressed classes in September 1932, pact abandoned separate electorates for the depressed classes and seats reserved for depressed classes increased.
• Gandhi while in jail set up the All India Anti Untouchability League in September 1932 and started weekly Harijan. Also set up Harijan Sevak Sangha. 

 11. Government of India Act 1935- Lord Linlithgow

Residuary powers are given to the Viceroy

• It abolished Dyarchy in provinces, and established provincial autonomy responsible government in the provinces that the governor to act with the advice of ministers responsible to the provincial legislature.
• Dyarchy in the centre introduced.
• It introduced bicameralism in six out of eleven provinces –Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Madras, Assam and United provinces.
• It further extended the principle of communal representation by providing depressed classes, women, and labour.
• It abolished the Council of India, established by the Government of India Act 1858. The Secretary of State for India was provided with a team of advisors.
• It extended franchise; ten per cent of the population got voting rights.
• It provided for the establishment of the Reserve Bank of India to control the currency and credit of the country.
• It provided for the establishment of not only a Federal Public Commission but also a Provincial Public Service Commission and Joint Public Service Commission. It provided for the establishment of a Federal court which was set in 1937.